Abstract
The objective was to characterize effects of Escherichia coli LPS (given i.v.) on corpus luteum (CL) and embryonic viability in early pregnant cattle. Eight non-lactating German Holstein cows were given 0.5 µg/kg LPS on 35 ± 3 day (mean ± s.e.m.) of pregnancy, whereas seven heifers, 41 ± 6 day pregnant, were given 10 mL saline (control group). Transrectal B-mode examinations of the CL were done at −1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h relative to treatment. Blood samples were collected at −1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. At 12 and 48 h, the CL was biopsied. None of the cows still in the experiment 10 day after LPS (n = 7) had embryonic loss. In LPS-treated cows, luteal area decreased (from 4.1 to 3.1 cm2; P ≤ 0.05) within 6 h and until 48 h. Luteal blood flow decreased by 39% (P ≤ 0.05) within the first 6 h after LPS, but returned to pre-treatment values by 48 h. Plasma P4 decreased by 62% (P ≤ 0.05), reached a nadir (2.7 ± 0.6 ng/mL) at 12 h after LPS and was not restored to pre-treatment (P ≤ 0.05). In luteal tissue, mRNAs for STAR and for FGF1 were lower (P ≤ 0.05) in LPS than in saline-treated cattle at 12 h, with no difference between groups at 48 h. Levels of mRNAs for CASP3 and FGF2 were not different between groups (P > 0.05) at 12 or 48 h after treatment. In conclusion, LPS transiently suppressed CL function, but did not induce embryonic mortality.
Introduction
Embryonic mortality is of cardinal importance in bovine reproduction (Zavy 1994, Lucy 2001). Embryonic mortality is usually classified into two categories, based on the time of return to estrus. In cattle with early embryonic mortality, estrus occurs before day 24 post insemination (p.i.), compatible with embryonic death before day 16 p.i., whereas in late embryonic mortality, cattle return to estrus after day 24 p.i., apparently due to death of the embryo after day 16 p.i. (Kastelic & Ginther 1989, Humblot 2001, Santos et al. 2004a ). Early embryonic mortality affects ~30–40% of all inseminated cattle, substantially reducing fertility (Thatcher et al. 1994, Silke et al. 2002, Diskin & Morris 2008). Late embryonic mortality is less frequent (5–20% of inseminated cattle) but causes greater economic losses per affected animal, as it substantially prolongs calving to conception intervals (Diskin & Sreenan 1980, Sreenan & Diskin 1983, Santos et al. 2004a ).
Inflammatory processes during early pregnancy have been associated with embryonic mortality in cattle (Hansen et al. 2004), attributed to production of prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2α) causing luteolysis and pregnancy loss (Manns et al. 1985, Stewart et al. 2003, Inskeep 2004). In cows given Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharides (E. coli LPS) during the first, second and third trimesters of pregnancy, 6 of 10 cows aborted (three, one and two in the first, second and third trimesters, respectively). Abortions were attributed to a prolonged release of PGF2α (Giri et al. 1990) causing reductions in progesterone (P4), especially during the first trimester (in the absence of an extraluteal source of P4).
In a recent in vivo study, intravenous administration of E. coli LPS (model for inflammation) temporarily decreased CL size and function in diestrus cows (Herzog et al. 2012). Luteal blood flow, plasma P4 concentration and CL size decreased within 3, 9 and 24 h, respectively, after LPS. However, oestrous cycle length was unchanged. Therefore, premature luteolysis did not occur.
The aim of the present study was to investigate effects of LPS exposure on the CL and on embryonic viability in early pregnant cattle. For this purpose, peripheral P4 was used as main assessment of luteal secretory activity (Sartori et al. 2004, Lüttgenau et al. 2011). Furthermore, the relationship between endotoxin exposure and luteal function was evaluated at a subcellular level in biopsies of luteal tissue. Molecular parameters known to yield information regarding key cellular functions of the CL were selected (Niswender et al. 2000). Specifically, STAR is responsible for transportation of cholesterol to the inner mitochondrial membrane, a rate-limiting step in P4 synthesis (Stocco & Clark 1996). Furthermore, fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) participate in regulation of development and regression of the CL. In that regard, acidic and basic FGFs (FGF1 and FGF2, respectively) are increased during functional luteolysis (Doraiswamy et al. 1998, Neuvians et al. 2004); FGF2 is also involved in CL formation and controls P4 secretion (Yamashita et al. 2008); and during luteolysis, Caspase-3 (CASP3) has a pivotal role in selective destruction of key structural and functional cellular proteins (Casciola-Rosen et al. 1996, Thornberry 1998).
Materials and methods
Cattle
This study was conducted (between April 2011 and May 2012) at the Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany. The experimental protocol was reviewed and approved (Lower Saxony Federal State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety, 33.9-42502 – 04-11/0515) and the research was conducted in accordance with German legislation on animal welfare. Eight non-lactating German Holstein cows, clinically healthy and 35 ± 3 days (mean ± s.e.m.) after insemination, were used for the LPS trial. These cows were 3.7 ± 0.8 years old.
In addition, seven German Holstein heifers from the FLI (Friedrich Loeffer Institut – Federal Research Institute for Animal Health) in Mariensee, Germany were used as a control group (Saline group; n = 7). They were 41 ± 6 days pregnant and 2.2 ± 0.3 years old, younger than the LPS-treated group (P ≤ 0.05). All cattle were tethered in stalls and given ad libitum access to hay and water.
Study design
The LPS group were subjected to an OvSynch protocol (Pursley et al. 1995), bred by timed artificial insemination, with pregnancy diagnosis (transrectal ultrasongraphy) done ~25 days after breeding. On day 35 ± 3 of pregnancy, a polyethylene catheter was inserted into a jugular vein. At 09:00 the following day, an LPS solution (0.5 µg/kg body weight of E. coli, O55:B5; L2880, Sigma Aldrich) in 10 mL sterile water (B. Braun, Melsungen) was given i.v. (over an interval of ~1 min). After administration of LPS, the jugular catheter was flushed with 25 mL 0.9% saline solution. Control heifers were bred following detection of estrus and given 10 mL of 0.9% saline solution instead of LPS on day 41 ± 6 of pregnancy.
Ultrasonography for assessment of the CL and pregnancy
Transrectal B-mode ultrasonographic examinations were done at −1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h relative to treatment (saline or LPS) to assess luteal size and luteal blood flow. A Logiq Book XP ultrasound scanner (General Electrics Medical Systems, Jiangsu, P.R. China), equipped with a 10.0-MHz linear-array transducer (General Electrics Yokogawa Medical Systems), was used. For luteal size, three cross-sectional images with maximal areas of the CL were recorded (using B-mode sonography) and luteal areas were measured offline (PixelFlux, version 1.0, Chameleon Software, Leipzig, Germany). If the CL had a cavity, the area of the cavity was measured and subtracted from total area (Kastelic et al. 1990). Means of the cross-sectional areas of the three images were calculated and used for statistical analyses. For luteal blood flow, power-flow Doppler was used for color blood flow mapping of the CL in various transverse sections, as described (Herzog et al. 2012).
To assess embryo/fetal viability, heartbeat was assessed with B-mode transrectal ultrasonography at 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96 h and at 10 days after infusion.
Blood samples and determination of plasma P4 and prostaglandin metabolites concentrations
At 1.0 h before administration of LPS or saline solution, blood samples were collected to characterize concentrations of P4 and PGFM. In addition, blood samples were collected (via the catheter) at 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h after treatment. Samples were stored on ice (0°–4°C), centrifuged (3000 g , 15 min at 4°C) within 30 min after collection and plasma removed stored at −20°C pending analyses.
Serum P4 concentrations were determined with a commercial chemiluminescence immunoassay (Immulite, Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics). The lower detection limit was 0.5 ng/mL, and intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation were <10%. Plasma PGFM concentrations were determined with a competitive enzyme immunoassay (Mishra et al. 2003). The PGFM-horseradish peroxidase conjugate and antiserum were supplied by Prof. Meyer (Physiology Weihenstephan, Technische Universitaet Muenchen, Freising, Germany), whereas PGFM used for the standard curve was purchased from Sigma. The antiserum had minimal (<0.01%) cross reactions with PGE2, PGEM, PGA2, PGAM and PGF2α (Guven & Ozsar 1993). The lowest detection limit for PGFM was 25 pg/mL. Intra- and inter-assay CVs were 3.5 and 11.4%, respectively.
CL biopsy
CL biopsies were done as described (Herzog et al. 2012) at 12 and 48 h after treatment. At each time of sampling, at least two tissue samples per animal were recovered and immediately placed in a sterile DNase- and RNase-free cryotube (Fa. Brand, Wertheim, Germany), frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80°C. This enabled repeated biopsy sampling from a single CL without impairing its function, as described (Tsai et al. 2001).
RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis and real-time qPCR
Total RNA was isolated from biopsy samples using QIAzol Lysis Reagent (QIAGEN), followed by two-step quantitative real-time RT-PCR (Pistek et al. 2013). A Bioanalyzer 2100 (Agilent Technologies) and RNA 6000 Nano Kit (Agilent) were used to assess RNA Quality. Mean RIN values were 6.5 (range: 5.5–8.0). The qPCR was done with a CFX384TM Real-Time PCR Detection System (Bio-Rad) and PCR Mix SensiFast SYBR and Fluorescein Kit (Bioline, London, UK). Primers used are shown in Table 1. The cycle of quantification (Cq) was calculated after baseline subtracted curve fitting using the single threshold method (Bio-Rad CFX Manager V1.5.534.0511 software). Relative quantification of qPCR products was done as described (Livak & Schmittgen 2001). Geometric means of reference genes H3F3A, UBK3 and YWHAZ were used for normalizing mRNA expression of target genes FGF1, FGF2, STAR and CASP3, according to the BestKeeper method (Pfaffl et al. 2004).
Sequences and accession numbers of the PCR primers for assayed genes and length, annealing temperature (AT), fluorescence acquisition (FA), and melting point (MP) temperature of the PCR products.
Gene | Gene symbol | Reference (accession no.) | Forward primer (5′–3′) | Reverse primer (3′–5′) | PCR-product (bp) | AT (°C) | FA (°C) | MP (°C) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Polyubiquitin | UBQ3 | NM_174133 | AGATCCAGGATAAGGAAGGCAT | GCTCCACCTCCAGGGTGAT | 198 | 60 | 83 | 88 |
Histone | H3F3A | NM_174133 | AGATCCAGGATAAGGAAGGCAT | GCTCCACCTCCAGGGTGAT | 233 | 60 | 80 | 87 |
Tyrosine 3-monooxygenase | YWHAZ | XM_001927228 | AGGCTGAGCGATATGATGAC | GACCCTCCAAGATGACCTAC | 141 | 60 | 81 | 87 |
Fibroblast growth factor 1 (acidic) | FGF1 | NM_174055 | GCTGAAGGAGAAACCAGCAC | GTTTTCCTCCAACCTTTCCA | 108 | 60 | 75 | 82 |
Fibroblast growth factor 2 (basic) | FGF2 | NM_174056 | TCAAAGGAGTGTGTGTGAAC | CAGGGCCACATACCAACTG | 288 | 60 | 75 | 82 |
Toll-like receptor 2 | TLR2 | NM_174197 | CCATGTGGAGAGGGTGTT | GGGGACACAAAACAGCACTT | 140 | 60 | 81 | 85 |
Toll-like receptor 4 | TLR4 | NM_174198 | GACCCTTGCGTACAGTTGT | GGTCCAGCATCTTGGTTGAT | 103 | 60 | 83 | 88 |
Caspase-3 | CASP3 | NM_214131 | AAC CTC CGT GGA TTC AAA ATC | TTC AGG RTA ATC CAT TTT GTA AC | 114 | 60 | 75 | 81 |
Steroidogenic acute regulatory | STAR | XR_083945 | GGATTAACCAGGTTCGGCG | CTCTCCTTCTTCCAGCCCTC | 157 | 60 | 84 | 89 |
Statistical analyses
For age, luteal size and blood flow, uterine blood flow parameters, and concentrations of P4 and PGFM, residuals within groups were visually examined for normal distribution (PROC CHART) and analyzed with a Shapiro–Wilk test (PROC UNIVARIATE). All statistical analyses were done with SAS (version 9.1, Statistical Analysis Institute Inc.).
Residuals within groups for the variable age did not differ significantly from a normal distribution. Hence, an independent two-sample Student’s t-test (PROC TTEST) was used for comparison of the mean ages of the two groups.
Residuals within groups for variables luteal blood flow (LBF), FGF1, FGF2, STAR and CASP3 also did not differ significantly from a normal distribution. Hence, these variables were submitted to a two-factorial variance analysis for repeated measurements (PROC GLM). The influence of various time points within groups was tested using repeated measurements variance analysis (PROC GLM). A Tukey’s HSD test was used to locate differences between groups. A Student’s t-test for paired samples (PROC MEANS) was used to compare measurement times within a group. Since variables P4, PGFM and luteal size (LS) did not have a normal distribution, nonparametric tests were used. Effects of measurement time on P4 and LS were submitted to a Friedman’s test (PROC SORT) and differences between groups were located using Wilcoxon’s rank-sum test (PROC NPAR1WAY). Differences between time points within a group were tested using a Wilcoxon’s signed rank test (PROC UNIVARIATE). For all statistical tests, a significance level of P ≤ 0.05 was specified. Values for LBF, FGF1, FGF2, STAR and CASP3 are expressed in text, figures and tables as mean ± standard deviation (s.d.). For P4, PGFM and LS, median and median absolute deviation (MAD) were used.
Results
Clinical response
Treatment with LPS induced various toxemia-related clinical signs, including tachycardia, tachypnoea, dyspnea, epiphora and mild diarrhea, as well as a slight increase of body temperature (maximal 39.7°C). However, all but one of the cattle were clinically normal by 12 h after treatment (Table 2). One cow was found dead 24 h after LPS treatment, with death attributed to cardiovascular failure. There were ~5 L of clotted blood in the abdominal cavity, likely due to hemorrhage from the CL biopsy site, which certainly contributed to her demise. There was no pregnancy loss during or up to 10 days after LPS treatments (≤12 h: n = 8; >12 h: n = 7) and control heifers did not have any clinical manifestations of toxemia.
Clinical symptoms of each LPS-treated cow.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time in relation to LPS (hh:mm) | ||||||||
−01:00 | T 38.6°CHR 76/min RR 24/minNo abnormal clinical signs | T 38.4°CHR 56/min RR 36/minNo abnormal clinical signs | T 38.7°CHR 56/min RR 24/minNo abnormal clinical signs | T 38.5°CHR 64/min RR 24/minNo abnormal clinical signs | T 38.5°CHR 72/min RR 32/minNo abnormal clinical signs | T 38.6°CHR 60/min RR 24/minNo abnormal clinical signs | T 38.8°CHR 72/min RR 40/minNo abnormal clinical signs | T 38.7°CHR 56/min RR 24/minNo abnormal clinical signs |
00:00–00:15 | TachycardiaRR to 60/min, eupneic tachypneaStanding, bright, sudden interruption of feed intake | TachycardiaRR to a maximum of 90/minMild to severe dyspnea, coughing, grunting, stridorStanding, brightPolyuriaEpiphora | Standing, brightTachycardiaRR to 52/minModerate dyspnea, coughing, mild stridor | RR to 36/minMild dyspnea, coughingStanding, bright | TachycardiaRR to 54/minMild dyspnea, dilated nostrils, coughingStanding, bright, sudden interruption of feed intake | Standing, brightTachycardiaRR to 56/minModerate dyspnea, coughing | RR 40/minStanding, bright, nervous | TachycardiaRR 90/minModerate dyspnea, coughingStanding, becomes less responsive, sudden interruption of feed intake |
00:15–00:30 | TachycardiaRR to a maximum of 104/minModerate dyspnea with stridor, sporadic gruntingStanding, becomes less responsive, head down | TachycardiaRR 90/min, irregularModerate to severe dyspnea, frequent and deep gruntingStanding, eupneic position (head down and forward, abducted front limbs), anxious, less responsiveEructation 1–2 times per minute | StandingTachycardiaRR to 52/minModerate dyspnea, coughing, stridor | TachycardiaRR 60–80/minModerate dyspnea with stridor, coughingStanding, becomes less responsive, nervous, head downPtyalismEpiphora | TachycardiaRR 54–104/minModerate to severe dyspnea with coughing, mouth breathingStanding, eupneic position (holds head forward), nervous, becomes less responsivePtyalismMild diarrhea | Standing, brightTachycardiaRR to 100/minModerate to severe dyspnea with stridor, coughing, mouth breathing | TachycardiaRR to 54/minModerate dyspnea, coughing Standing, bright, anxious | Standing, bright, anxiousTachycardiaRR 90/minModerate to severe dyspnea with stridor, grunting, coughing, mouth breathingMild to moderate diarrhea |
00:30–01:00 | TachycardiaRR to 80/minModerate dyspnea with stridor, frequent grunting, sporadic coughingUnsteadiness, alternates weight bearing on left vs right rear limbsPtyalism | TachycardiaRR to 58/minSevere dyspnea with stridor, grunting, coughingUnsteady, alternates weight between rear limbsPtyalism, epiphora and seromucous nasal discharge | Standing, anxious, unresponsive, holds head downTachycardiaRR to a maximum of 60/minSevere dyspnea with stridor, grunting, coughingPtyalismModerate diarrhea | TachycardiaRR 80/minModerate dyspnea with stridor, grunting, coughingStanding, anxious, unresponsive, ears coldPtyalismEpiphora and injected ESVMild diarrhea | TachycardiaRR to 92/minSevere dyspnea with grunting, coughingStanding, nervous, unsteadiness, alternates weight on rear limbs,unresponsive, head downPtyalismMild diarrhea | TachycardiaRR to 68/minModerate dyspnea with stridor, gruntingStanding, less responsive, unsteady, alternated weight on rear limbsPtyalismModerate diarrhea | TachycardiaRR to 54/minMild dyspnea, coughingStanding, becomes less responsive, anxious Moderate diarrhea | TachycardiaRR 90/minModerate to severe dyspnea with dilated nostrils, stridor, grunting, coughing, epistaxisStanding, eupneic position (head down and forward, abducted front limbs), anxious, unsteady, alternates weight between rear limbs, becomes unresponsive |
01:00–02:00 | T 39.4°CTachycardiaRR 52–80/minModerate dyspnea with stridorFrequent gruntingAnxious, drinks repeatedly, UnresponsivePtyalism | T 38.4°CTachycardiaRR from 24 to 48/minSevere dyspnea with stridor, frequent gruntingAnxious, searches repeatedly for water but does not drink, Unresponsive, up and downPtyalism, epiphora and seromucous nasal dischargeEars cold (only apical)Injected ESVMild diarrhea | T 38.8°CTachycardiaRR to 48/minModerate dyspnea with stridor, grunting, coughingStanding, is calm, but still unresponsiveInjected ESVMild diarrhea | T 38.5°CTachycardiaRR 64–72/minSevere dyspnea with stridor, grunting, coughing, mouth breathingUp and down, anxious, unresponsivePtyalismEpiphora and injected ESVMild diarrhea | T 39.4°CTachycardiaRR 78–88/minModerate dyspnea, stridor, gruntingStanding, eupneic position (holds head forward), anxious, unresponsive, alternates weight on rear limbsPtyalismInjected ESVTremors | T 38.6°CTachycardiaRR to 64/minModerate dyspnea, gruntingMostly standing, unresponsiveBristled hairInjected ESV | T 39.3°CRR 60/minMild dyspnea, coughingUp and down anxious, unsteadiness, alternates weight between rear limbs, unresponsive, tremorsInjected ESVModerate diarrheaPtyalismInjected ESV | T 38.8°CRR 90/minSevere dyspneaRecumbentModerate diarrheaTachycardiaInjected ESVHyperemic nasal mucosa |
02:00–03:00 | T 39.3°CTachycardiaRR 56–60/minModerate dyspnea with stridor, frequent grunting and coughingUp and downCalm, but unresponsivePtyalismInjected ESV | T 39.0°CRR 32–24/minSevere to moderate dyspnea, stridor, grunting sporadicallyMostly recumbent, frequently shifted between lying on left vs rightUnresponsiveInjected ESVModerate diarrheaOther signs tend to disappear | T 38.8°CTachycardiaRR 44–36/minModerate to mild dyspnea with stridorStanding, is calm, but still unresponsive, drinks repeatedlyPtyalism disappearsInjected ESVMild diarrhea | T 38.5°CTachycardiaRR 64–54/minModerate dyspnea with gruntingUp and down, calm, but unresponsivePtyalismEpiphora and injected ESVMild diarrhea | T 39.0°CTachycardiaRR to 80/minModerate dyspnea, gruntingStanding, calm, but unresponsive, drinks repeatedlyInjected ESV | T 38.5°CRR to 64/minMild dyspnea, gruntingMostly standing, unresponsiveInjected ESV | T 39.7°CRR to 60/minMild dyspnea, stridor, grunting, coughingRecumbent, nervous, unresponsiveModerate diarrheaPtyalismInjected ESVTremors | T 38.8°CRR 90/minSevere to mild dyspneaRecumbentModerate diarrheaTachycardiaInjected ESV |
03:00–06:00 | T 38.6°CTachycardia gradually decreasesRR slowed from 56 to 36/min (03:00–05:00)Moderate to mild dyspnea with gurgling and stridor; grunting and cough disappear gradually05:00 becomes calm and responsivePtyalismInjected ESV05:00–06:00 polyuria | T 38.5°CRR 27/minMild dyspnea tends to decrease, slight stridor, grunting sporadicallyMostly standing, is calm, but still unresponsiveInjected to normal ESVMild diarrhea | T 38.4°bib3:00 No tachycardiaRR 36–20/minMild dyspnea tends to disappearUp and down, becomes calm and responsiveTremorsInjected ESVMild diarrhea | T 38.2°CTachycardia gradually decreasesRR 40–48/minModerate to severe to mild dyspnea with stridor, grunting, coughing, gradually decreasingUp and down, head down, unresponsiveTremorsPtyalismInjected ESVMild diarrhea | T 37.5°C (04:17) to 38.0°C (05:00)No tachycardia (04:17)RR to 56/minMild dyspnea, coughing, gruntingUp and down, still unresponsiveMild dehydrationTremorsInjected ESV | T 39.3°CRR to 56/minMild dyspnea, gruntingMostly standing, becomes calm and responsive (4:53)Injected ESV | T 39.4°C (03:06) to 39.0 (04:08)RR to 44/minMostly recumbent, becomes calm and responsiveAll signs progressively disappear | T 38.8°CTachycardiaRR 90/minModerate dyspnea decreases to disappearing (03:53)Mostly standing, becomes calm and bright (03:53)Moderate diarrheaTremorsAll signs tend to disappear05:50 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs |
06:00–12:00 | T 38.4°CRR 36/minMild dyspnea and stridor gradually disappeared06:00, feed and water intake restored07:50 all signs disappeared | T 38.5°bib8:51 HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs | T 38.6°CMostly recumbent, calm, brightRR 24/min07:25 no abnormal clinical signs | T 38.3°CRR 40/minNo dyspneaMostly recumbenbib7:15 becomes calm and responsive, feed and water intake restoredAll other signs gradually disappear09:45 no abnormal clinical signs | T 38.7°CRR 44–58/minMild dyspnea only when recumbent, coughMostly recumbent, unresponsive, feed and water intake restoredInjected ESVAll other signs disappear (11:17) | T 39.3°CRR to 40/minMild dyspnea, then decreasedMostly recumbent, bright, feed and water intake restored (06:00)09:03 no abnormal clinical signs | T 38.8°CMostly recumbent, brighbib6:06 HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs | T 38.8°CHR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signsUp and down, bright |
12:00–24:00 (end) | 12:00 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs | 12:00 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs21:00 found dead (apparently died between 15:00 and 20:00) | 12:00 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs | 12:00 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs | 12:00 T 38.4°CRR 40/minNo dyspneaStanding, slightly unresponsiveInjected ESV24:00 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs | 12:00 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs | 12:00 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs | 12:00 T, HR and RR in normal range, no abnormal clinical signs |
ESV, episcleral vessels; HR, heart rate; RR, respiratory rate; T, rectal temperature.
Luteal area and LBF
LS was 12% smaller (P ≤ 0.05) at 6 h after LPS treatment, reached a nadir (3.1 ± 0.3 cm2) at 12 h, remained low until 24 h, and then returned to pre-treatment values by 48 and thereafter remained unchanged (Fig. 1). For LBF, there were effects of treatment, time and a treatment by time interaction (P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 1). In LPS-treated cows, LBF decreased by 39% (P ≤ 0.05) at 6 h, reached a nadir (0.9 ± 0.2 cm2) at 12 h, and then rebounded to pre-treatment values by 48 h (Fig. 1). In control heifers, LS and LBF remained relatively stable.
Plasma P4 and PGFM concentrations
For plasma P4 concentrations, there were effects of time (P ≤ 0.05) and a treatment by time interaction (P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 2). Plasma P4 concentrations increased from 7.1 ± 0.7 to 10.3 ± 2.7 ng/mL (median ± MAD; P ≤ 0.05) within the first 30 min after administration. Thereafter, P4 decreased between consecutive measurements (P ≤ 0.05) beginning 4 h after infusion, reached a nadir (2.7 ± 0.6 ng/mL) 12 h after infusion, increased again between 24 and 48 h (P ≤ 0.05), but was not restored to pre-treatment values. In control heifers, P4 concentrations did not vary significantly between consecutive measurements during the first 12 h (P > 0.05). Progesterone concentrations decreased (P ≤ 0.05) between 12 and 24 h after saline infusion, increased again between 24 and 48 h (P ≤ 0.05) and thereafter remained constant. Plasma P4 concentrations were higher in LPS-treated than control cattle within the first 30 min after treatment (P ≤ 0.05), lower (P ≤ 0.05) in LPS-treated cattle between 9 and 12 h after treatment and higher (P ≤ 0.05) in LPS-treated cattle at 48 h.
For PGFM, there were effects of time, and a treatment by time interaction (P ≤ 0.5; Fig. 2). Plasma PGFM concentrations increased almost by an order of magnitude within the first 30 min after infusion of LPS, but had returned to baseline by 4 h and remained there. In control heifers, PGFM did not change significantly over time. Concentrations of PGFM were higher (P > 0.05) in LPS vs control cattle for the first 4 h after infusion.
Gene expression
In cows given LPS, transcript abundance of mRNA encoding CASP3 was higher at 12 vs 24 h after treatment (P ≤ 0.5, Fig. 3), whereas expression of STAR mRNA was lower (P ≤ 0.5, Fig. 3) at 12 vs 48 h. There was no difference within the LPS group for FGF2 (P > 0.05), whereas FGF1 was lower (P ≤ 0.05, Fig. 3) at 12 vs 48 h after LPS infusion. Within the control group, expression of mRNA did not vary between time points (P > 0.05) for any parameter. Levels of mRNA encoding STAR and FGF1 were lower in LPS- than in saline-treated cattle at 12 h after treatment (P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 3) but not at 48 h. There were no differences between treatment groups for CASP3 or FGF2 (P > 0.05).
Discussion
In early pregnant cows in the present study, iv administration of LPS endotoxin temporarily suppressed CL function and structure. LS, LBF and P4 decreased within 12 h after LPS treatment, but complete luteal regression did not occur. Similarly, in a previous study, administration of LPS to diestrous cows reduced LS, LBF and P4 during the first 24 h after treatment (Herzog et al. 2012), but did not cause luteal regression.
In the present study, all fetuses still in the experiment at the time (n = 7) had a heart beat 10 days after treatment. Progesterone is essential for maintenance of pregnancy in cattle (Estergreen et al. 1967). In the first trimester of gestation, removal of the CL causes abortion. Progesterone of placental origin can support pregnancy at ~150–250 days of gestation in the absence of a CL. However, removal of the CL after 250-day results in calving in 1 or 2 days (Stabenfeldt et al. 1970, Mann & Lamming 1999, Taverne 2001, Breukelman et al. 2005). Furthermore, pregnancy is maintained by exogenous P4 in cattle in absence of endogenous P4, for example, with the CL removed by ovariectomy (Kesler 1997) or administration of luteolytic doses of PGF2α (Ferguson et al. 2014). In particular, based on a recent report (Ferguson et al. 2014) the sooner P4 supplementation starts after PGF2α, the more likely the pregnancy will be maintained, with a positive outcome most likely if exogenous P4 is given within 12 h after PGF2α. Furthermore, those authors observed that P4 decreased fastest between 12 and 24 h after PGF2α and was below 2 ng/mL by 30 h post PGF2α. In this study, P4 in LPS-treated cows was also supressed for more than 12 h in a similar pattern, but consistently exceeded 2 ng/mL. Luteal regression and declines in plasma P4 to <2 ng/mL after administration of exogenous PGF2α are well established (Lauderdale 1975, Sioan 1977, Wright & Kiracofe 1988). We concluded that the LPS-induced release of endogenous PGF2α impaired luteolytic function but did not cause luteolysis, thereby reducing P4 production, but not getting systemic P4 concentrations low enough to terminate pregnancy.
Administering viable bacteria or prolonged infusions of LPS activate the immunological cascade, disrupt neuroendocrine activity (mainly by blocking or delaying the LH surge), and can shorten the estrous cycle in postpartum cattle (Williams et al. 2008). Also, studies using mastitis as a model of inflammation instead of experimentally LPS administration have implicated infectious diseases as causing embryonic loss (Soto et al. 2003, Santos et al. 2004b ). However, in the present study, LPS was administered over a short interval (~1 min). Therefore, the insult was short-lived. Consequently, only one PGFM peak was detected; although it clearly suppressed P4, it did not cause luteolysis and the CL subsequently recovered. In heifers, intrauterine infusions of exogenous PGF2α caused a PGFM pattern with several pulses, similar to spontaneous luteolysis (Ginther et al. 2009). That the single PGFM peak detected in the present study did not induce luteolysis was further evidence that sequential PGF pulses are crucial for complete luteolysis in cattle (Ginther et al. 2009, 2010).
In third-trimester cows (n = 3, 190–200 days of gestation) given LPS (0.5 µg Salmonella typhimurium, LPS/kg) intravenously, the LPS was rapidly cleared, and there were no indications that it crossed the placenta. However, all three cows aborted within 10 days after LPS treatment (Foley et al. 1993). In the present study, none of the cows aborted. Perhaps the third-trimester fetus is more susceptible to LPS than cattle at ~6 weeks of pregnancy. Also, differences in source and dose of LPS could have contributed to disparate outcomes. Effects of two doses of LPS (1.0 or 2.5 μg E. coli LPS/kg) in cows at various stages of pregnancy have been reported (Giri et al. 1990). In that study, LPS was infused over 6 h (which better represented exposure to LPS in natural infection), in contrast to the single bolus injection given in the present study. Furthermore, magnitudes of changes in P4, PGFM, cortisol and other metabolites, as well as severity of clinical signs, were all dose dependent. Although the type of LPS used was the same as in the present work, both doses were higher. Intensity of systemic responses to LPS in cattle is dose dependent and can considerably vary from cow to cow (Jacobsen et al. 2005).
Progesterone concentrations after LPS treatment in the present study were similar to those in cyclic cows (Herzog et al. 2012). In both experiments, P4 peaked 30 min after LPS exposure. This was attributed to an acute release of P4 from the adrenal gland, as in the study by Battaglia et al. (1997), with a nadir in P4 after 12 h. However, P4 concentrations in cyclic LPS-treated cows remained decreased for up to 48 h after LPS exposure (Herzog et al. 2012), whereas the difference between early pregnant LPS and control cattle had disappeared by 24 h after LPS administration. Progesterone concentrations also recovered much faster in pregnant cows of the present study than in cyclic cows (Herzog et al. 2012). Furthermore, P4 concentrations were higher 48 h after treatment in LPS-treated cows compared to controls. Similarly, for LBF, there was no difference between LPS and saline-treated pregnant cattle in LBF 24 h after LPS administration, and LBF was higher in LPS-treated cows 48 and 72 h after treatment, consistent with a robust association between P4 and LBF, as reported (Herzog et al. 2010). Changes in LS caused by LPS infusion were less prominent in pregnant than in cyclic cows. Luteal size sharply decreased in pregnant cows, reached a nadir at 12 h and returned to initial values by 48 h after infusion, whereas in cyclic cows, the nadir occurred after 24 h and LS never regained pre-treatment baseline (Herzog et al. 2012).
Luteal gene expression confirmed that the CL of LPS-treated cows in the present study underwent partial luteolysis. As in cyclic cows (Herzog et al. 2012), StAR was reduced 12 h after LPS administration in pregnant cows. Already at 48 h, however, there were no differences between LPS and control cattle in expression of StAR mRNA. Unfortunately, in the previous experiment, expression of mRNA in cyclic cows was not assessed 48 h after infusion. Regardless, it is noteworthy that plasma P4 concentrations differed between groups for only a short interval.
There were no significant differences between LPS-treated vs control cows for mRNA expression of CASP3. Conversely, in cyclic cows (Herzog et al. 2012), expression of this protein was increased 12 h after administration in LPS-treated cows compared to controls, in accordance with decreased LS. Perhaps CASP3 has an important role in apoptosis and/or subsequent regeneration of cycling, but not in CL of pregnant cows, where it may have a lesser effect. Observations in laboratory animals support this assertion. In that regard, CASP3 can be dispensable or nonspecific in mice (Kuida et al. 1996, Jänicke et al. 1998). Furthermore, in postpartum rats, CASP3 only regulated regression of the CL generated after parturition, but had no apparent role in luteolysis of a CL formed during pregnancy (Takiguchi et al. 2004). Further investigation is needed to determine the relevance of these findings for the bovine CL. In addition, we evaluated CASP3 only at mRNA level. Assessing the presence of the CASP3 protein would provide further information (Johnson & Bridgham 2000, Fenwick & Hurst 2002); therefore, it should be considered in future studies.
There were significant differences in expression of FGF1 but not FGF2 after LPS exposure. Similarly, in a previous study, FGF1 was reduced in cyclic LPS-treated cows 12 h after exposure (Lüttgenau et al. 2016). Both FGF1 and FGF2 are regarded as cellular ‘survival factors’ (Renaud et al. 1994), conferring protection against apoptosis. They promote angiogenesis in the developing CL, as well as support pre-existing vasculature in the mature and gravid CL (Zheng et al. 1993, Schams 1994). Therefore, reductions in FGF1 and a corresponding decrease in LBF at 12 h after LPS infusion were expected. In cyclic cows, both FGF1 and FGF2 were increased at 12 h after induction of luteolysis (Neuvians et al. 2004). In contrast, in the present study, FGF2 expression did not change over time and FGF1 expression was lower 12 h after LPS infusion. Furthermore, FGF2 was increased in diestrous cows given LPS (Lüttgenau et al. 2016). Since the cited experiments were done in cyclic cattle, apparent differences may have been due to pregnancy status. There may be luteoprotective mechanisms in the CL of pregnant cattle that make them less susceptible to endogenous PGF, consistent with the ‘rebound’ in CL function in LPS-treated cows in the present study.
The LPS-treated cows underwent an OvSynch protocol and timed artificial insemination, whereas heifers in the control group were inseminated after estrus detection. This difference was due to organizational reasons, but is potentially relevant. Timed artificial insemination is a potential risk factor for late embryonic loss, although direct evidence is missing (Santos et al. 2004a ). However, rather than luteal or uterine events, follicular development seems to play a relevant part in the mechanism by which timed artificial insemination affects pregnancy rate (Jordan et al. 2009, Bollwein et al. 2010). Fortunately, none of the LPS-cows in our study underwent embryonic loss.
Due to organizational reasons, there was also a difference in parity number and age between LPS and control group (primiparous cows vs nulliparous heifers). However, none of the parameters measured (LS, LBF, P4 and PGFM) differed between the two groups before LPS infusion. Furthermore, the minimal reaction to the NaCl infusion of the heifers in this study resembled that of cycling cows (Herzog et al. 2012). In addition, the control group was mainly designed to exclude any influence of stressors (e.g. manipulations related to treatment, sonography and other examinations), since, in general, stress impairs reproductive function (Sheldon et al. 2014, Endo et al. 2017). In this regard, there is evidence that heifers might be even less stress-resistant than cows. When cattle are repeatedly exposed to stressors such as painless restraint, transport and manipulation, their reaction to those stimuli progressively decreases. This applies to behavioral alterations as well as to hormonal response, for example, cortisol level (Boissy & Bouissou 1988, Lay Jr et al. 1996, Grandin 1997, Rushen et al. 2001). Because of their younger age, nulliparous heifers are obviously less accustomed to human contact and manipulations than cows. Thus, they are likely more stress sensitive than older cows (Lay Jr et al. 1996). An inverse relation between parity number and intensity of reaction to stressors has been reported in other species, including gestating sows (Zhang et al. 2017).
One cow died between 12 and 24 h after LPS infusion. At necropsy, there were approximately 5 L of clotted blood in the abdomen, apparently derived from luteal biopsy sites. The ultrasound-guided technique described by Tsai et al. (2001) allows repeated biopsies from a CL, without apparent effect on its function. To our knowledge, this is the first case reporting hemorrhage from the biopsy site after using this technique. It is known from human medicine that leukopenia and thrombocytopenia develop in immunocompetent patients during septic shock (Stephan et al. 1997). In a healthy cow, the loss of 5 L of blood would not cause death (Radostits et al. 2007). However, in an animal that was already compromised, this may have acted in a synergistic manner with acute phase symptoms, resulting in death.
In summary, administration of LPS to early pregnant cows caused a temporary depression of luteal function, but all pregnancies were preserved. Furthermore, the impact on CL was less pronounced than in a similar study involving diestrous cows. In particular, analysis of molecular parameters suggested differences in luteolytic mechanisms between the CL of the cycle and the CL of pregnancy, consistent with luteoprotective changes in the latter.
Declaration of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research reported.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Friedrich-Löffler-Institute in Mariensee for generously providing access to pregnant heifers.
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